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EXERPT
FROM A PAPER ENTITLED: "Towards a post-materialist understanding of science lessons learnt form the interface of biodynamic agriculture and research" Paper
for the Compas panel in the conference: Bridging Scales and
Epistemologies: Stephan
Rist/Lucas Rist: University of Bern, Switzerland, e-mail:Stephan.Rist@cde.unibe.ch An
alternative perspective on genes Once
we came to an understanding on the ‘nature’ of the animals and
having understood as well the way through which we are connected to it,
we had to address the question on the role of genetics – which are
fundamental for breeding - in the context of the biodynamic
understanding of animals. A
way of looking at genes that accords with post-materialism does not
comprise the inadequate view that genetic substance builds up the
organism in a physical causative way. The genetic substances are rather
seen as the condition under which the omnipotence of the species
individualises itself to a specific phenomenal form similar to its
predecessors whence came the genetic substance (RIST, 2000). The genetic
substance is the condition for getting a Fresian calf from the mating of
a Fresian cow with a Fresian bull. That an organism of the cattle kind
arises at all is not attributable to the genetic substance but to the
psychologicalspiritual 'information' embodied in the species of cattle. Unbiased
observation of gene technology or genetic engineering suggests
that these designations are inappropriate because for one thing many
experiments do not 'succeed', i.e. do not deliver confirmation of the
materialistic theory (GOODWIN, 1984; HOLLIDAY, 1988; HEUSSER, 1989;
REIBER, 1995; STROHMAN, 1997), or when they do 'succeed', malformations
result or unexpected results are produced. It is less a matter of a
mature 'technology', than an interesting field of scientific research.
To this one might add that many experiments which have not succeeded
according to the current theory have not been reported (FOX, 1991). If
mechanical technology had a similarly uncertain outcome, hardly anyone
would set foot in an aeroplane or even a train. The
most extensive proliferation of gene manipulation has been with
bacteria. WIRZ (1995) explains this as being the result of the fact that
bacteria can be easily cultured in millions, the few good examples
easily isolated and multiplied. It is also worth noting that bacteria
have a natural tendency to exchange genes. Furthermore,
bacteria allow the introduction of genes from higher organisms, but even
then the outcome is not at all certain as shown for example by the Escherichia
coli bacterium which received a foreign gene for the oxidation of
naphthalene to salicylate, but unexpectedly produced the dye indigo
(ENSLEY et al, 1983). In
addition we need to consider that in prokaryotes (organisms with no cell
nucleus) which include the bacteria it is always the whole gene that is
expressed whereas with eukaryotes (organisms with a proper cell nucleus)
which include almost all plants and all animals, only a part of the gene
is expressed. Here, even at the molecular level, lies a functional
difference between the simpler and the more developed species. It
can happen that some DNA sequences code for more than one protein or
that genes overlap. Through varying the splicing (LEWIN, 1991) different
proteins can be obtained from the same nucleotide sequence. The
more highly developed species are less able to fit themselves to
different environmental conditions than universal organisms which can
appear under various conditions and therefore from an experimenter's
point of view are more easily manipulable. In the transition from
bacteria to higher organisms it is clear that genetic engineering
experiments are most successful with plants that are more closely
related to one another (POTRYKUS, 1991). Even here the boundaries are
once again closely set, as for example with the 'tomato' which was a
protoplast crossing between the two nightshade species tomato and
potato. Although it grew, it resulted in neither an edible tomato
nor an edible potato. Both species could still influence the genetic
material but it led to corresponding disturbances in their
species-specific formative tendencies, especially their assimilation
into the corresponding fruit or root regions. In
addition it should be noted that in plants genes foreign to the species
are soon no longer expressed, i.e. brought to appearance, but through a
molecular reaction (methylation) are inactivated (MEYER, 1996) - so
called 'gene silencing': the transgene concerned poses an unfavourable
condition for the plant species and can be silenced by it. Stable
expression of such transgenes is difficult to attain, especially when
the environmental conditions vary a lot. Thus in an open air experiment
petunias containing a so called colour gene from maize initially showed
the desired colour. But when a period of hot weather arrived - i.e. a
change in the environmental conditions - they lost the coloration once
again showing that the gene had been inactivated (LINN, 1990). So called
pleiotropic effects appeared, meaning that other features than
pigmentation were affected. The transgenic petunias had more leaves and
shoots per plant and were more resistant to pathogenic fungi. They
showed greater vitality and lower fertility than the unmanipulated
petunias (MEYER, 1995). During the hot weather the vitality of the
transgenic petunias was suppressed. This illustrates clearly how the
petunia species can more or less effectively influence its
hereditary material depending on the environmental conditions. Gene
manipulation comes up against the greatest difficulties with mammals. So
in the so called 'knockout experiments' on mice in which genes are
switched off by a molecular technique, out of approximately a million
treated cells only one with the desired effect could be found (CAPECCHI,
1994). In the 'production' of transgenic animals one can hardly fail to
notice the enormous 'embryo consumption'. In
a large experiment on pigs lasting three years only 8% of the
manipulated egg cells gave rise to births. Of these 8% only 7% had in
fact taken up the transgene. This corresponds to a success rate of only
0.6% (PURSEL et. al., 1989). In the animals that actually took up the
foreign gene, its effect in most cases showed as deformations or
functional disturbances. For instance, the
pigs grew faster. But in the long run this was detrimental to health as
the pigs showed a strong tendency to gastric ulcers, arthritis,
cardiomegaly, dermatitis and kidney diseases. Through this intervention
the conditions for the porcine species became so unfavourable that it
could only imperfectly form its organism. The 'growth hormone' gene
became - in the language of genetics - an arthritis gene. In
the aforementioned knockout experiments people hope to gain information
on the function of the deleted gene in the organism. To the amazement of
the experts a large number of these deletions were without visible
consequences for the organism or quite other characteristics were
affected from the ones predicted from theory (TAUTZ, 1992; BROOKFIELD,
1992). When the species is capable of forming a complete organism
without a gene presupposed to be essential, it can only mean that genes
are not the cause of the organism's existence, but only provide more or
less favourable conditions and in some cases can be completely absent. Website: Full paper available at http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/bridging/papers/rist.stephan.2.pdf |